Zvikonzero zvekusapomerwa mhosva (strafuitsluitingsgronden) mamiriro ezvinhu anoita kuti chiito chemhosva chakabvumidzwa chisarangwa. Mutemo weDutch unopatsanura kuita zvikamu zviviri. Chirevo (rechtvaardigingsgrond) chinobvisa kusabvumidzwa kwemutemo wemutemo pachawo: kuzvidzivirira, kudiwa, kuita basa repamutemo uye kuita basa repamutemo, muzvinyorwa 40 kusvika 43 zveCriminal Code (Wetboek van Strafrecht, Sr). Chirevo (schulduitsluitingsgrond) chinosiya mutemo uyu usiri pamutemo asi chinobvisa mhosva inomupomera: kusabatwa nekuda kwechirwere chepfungwa, kumanikidzwa kwepfungwa, kuzvidzivirira zvakanyanya, uye kudzivirira kusina kunyorwa kwekusavapo kwemhosva dzese (AVAS).
Mugumisiro wechero chimwe nechimwe chazvo wakafanana. Pasi pechikamu 352 cheMutemo weMaitiro Emhosva (Wetboek van Strafvordering, Sv) dare rinoona kuti chokwadi chakasimbiswa asi rinosunungura mupomerwi kubva pakupomerwazve mhosva: ontslag van alle rechtsvervolging, inowanzo pfupikiswa kuOVAR. Hapana mutongo uye hapana mutongo. Izvozvo zvakasiyana nekusunungurwa (vrijspraak), kunotevera kana chokwadi chakapihwa chisina kuratidzwa zvachose.
Gwaro iri rinotsanangura chikonzero chimwe nechimwe, zvinofanirwa kusimbiswa, kuti sei musiyano uripo pakati pechikonzero nechikonzero zvichikosha kune vanhu vakaita newe, uye zvinoitika chaizvo mushure mekuvhiyiwa kweOVAR, izvo zvisiri nguva dzose apo mupomerwi anoenda kumba.
Panowanikwa dziviriro musarudzo yedare
Dare remhosva rekuDutch rinopindura mibvunzo mina mugwaro rakatarwa, rakatsanangurwa muchikamu 350 Sv. Mhosva yacho yakasimbiswa here? Kana zvakadaro, imhosva ipi? Mupomerwi anorangwa here? Uye mutongo upi kana chiyero chinofanira kuteverwa? Zvikonzero zvekusapomerwa mhosva zvinoonekwa pamubvunzo wechipiri newechitatu, uye ndeupi wavo unosarudza manyorerwo emutongo.
Kururamisa kunobvisa kusateerera mutemo, saka mufambiro wakaratidzwa hausi mhosva: chokwadi hachirangirwi (het feit is niet strafbaar). Chikonzero chinosiya mufambiro wacho uri pamutemo asi chinobvisa mhosva, saka mupomerwi haarangirwi (de verdachte is niet strafbaar). Muzviitiko zvose izvi dare rinozivisa chokwadi chakaratidzwa uye rinozivisa OVAR, asi zvikonzero zvinosiyana, uye ndizvo zvinoitawo mhedzisiro yacho.
Migumisiro mitatu inotevera kubva pamusiyano, uye haisi yedzidzo. Kururamisa kunoshanda kune wese munhu anobatanidzwa mumufambiro mumwe chete: munhu akabatsira munhu ari kuzvidzivirira zviri pamutemo haafanirwewo kurangwa, nekuti hapana chiito chisiri pamutemo chekutora chikamu machiri. Chikonzero ndechemunhu oga, saka mumwe munhu ari kupomerwa mhosva asina kumanikidzwa zvakafanana anogona kutongerwa mhosva. Uye kana mupomerwi akasunungurwa nekuti chiito chacho hachigone kunzi chakakonzerwa naye nekuda kwechirwere chepfungwa, dare rinogona kupa chiyero pane chirango, icho chinotaurwa pazasi.
Pane chinhu chechina chakakodzera kuziva. Dzimwe nguva kusavapo kwemutemo kana mhosva kunotsanangurwa mutsanangudzo yemhosva pachayo, semuenzaniso apo mhosva inoda kuti chiito chacho chakaitwa. Kana chinhu ichocho chikakundikana, mhedzisiro yacho haisi OVAR asi kusunungurwa, nekuti chinhu chemhosva hachina kuratidzwa.
Zviruramiso zvina
Mutemo weDutch unobvuma zvikonzero zvina zvakanyorwa, chimwe nechimwe chiri muchikamu chayo cheCriminal Code.
Kuzvidzivirira (noodweer), chinyorwa 41 ndima 1 Sr. Munhu anoita chiito chinodiwa nekudzivirira muviri wake kana wemumwe munhu, kuvimbika pabonde kana pfuma yake kubva pakurwiswa kusiri pamutemo. Zvinhu zvina zvinofanira kunge zviripo. Panofanira kuva nekurwiswa, kunofanira kunge kusiri pamutemo, uye kunofanira kunge kuripo nekukurumidza, zvichireva kuti kuri kuitika kana kuti kuri pedyo; kutya chimwe chinhu chingangoitika gare gare hakuna kukwana, uye kutsiva hakuna kukwana kana kurwiswa kwapera. Chiito ichi chinofanira kunge chiri chekudzivirira, saka chinofanira kunge chakanangidzirwa pakudzivirira kurwiswa. Uye chinofanira kunge chiri chinodiwa, izvo zvinounza hunyanza, zvichireva kuti pakanga pasina imwe nzira inonzwisisika yakaita sekusiya, uye kuenzana, zvichireva kuti nzira dzakashandiswa dzaive nehukama hwakakodzera nekurwiswa.
Zviitiko zviviri zvinodzokororwa mumatare edzimhosva. Mupomerwi akakonzera kusawirirana nemaune, nekuda kwechikonzero, anogona kurasikirwa nedziviriro. Uye zvingatarisirwa kumupomerwi zvinotongwa zvishoma zvichienderana nekuti ndiani: mupurisa akadzidziswa kana murindi wekuchengetedza anobatwa nemutemo wepamusoro kupfuura munhu ari pedyo, ndosaka mitemo yekushandiswa kwesimba nemapurisa ichiongororwa zvakasiyana, sezvinotsanangurwa nechinyorwa chedu pamusoro pekushandiswa kwesimba nemapurisa mudare.
Zvinodikanwa (overmacht in de zin van noodtoestand), chinyorwa 40 Sr. Article 40 covers two situations, and this is the one that operates as a justification. A defendant faced with a conflict of duties or interests chooses to breach the criminal norm to serve a higher interest, and the choice is objectively defensible. The classic example is breaking a traffic rule to get a critically ill passenger to hospital. The court weighs the interests against each other and asks whether the breach was proportionate and whether nothing less drastic would have served.
Basa remutemo (wettelijk voorschrift), chinyorwa 42 Sr. A person who commits an act to carry out a statutory provision is not punishable. The provision must genuinely require or authorise the conduct, and the conduct must remain within what the provision permits; going further than the rule allows takes the defendant outside article 42.
Murairo wepamutemo (ambtelijk bevel), chikamu 43 ndima 1 Sr. Munhu anoita murairo wakapihwa zviri pamutemo nechiremera chine hunyanzvi haapihwe chirango. Pfungwa inowanzotaurwa zvisirizvo ndeyezvinoitika kana murairo usina kupihwa zvine hunyanzvi. Chikamu 43 ndima 2 hachisiye munhu ari pasi pake asina dziviriro: chinovaregerera kana vakatenda nekutenda kwakanaka kuti murairo wacho wakapihwa zvine hunyanzvi uye kutevedzera kwacho kwakawira mukati mechikamu chekuzviisa pasi kwavo. Ichocho chikonzero, kwete chikonzero, uye nekudaro chinoshanda chete kumunhu ane chitendero ichocho.
Alongside these four, Dutch law recognises an unwritten justification: the absence of material unlawfulness. It was accepted in the veterinary surgeon case decided by the Supreme Court in 1933, where a vet deliberately exposed healthy cattle to disease to build immunity, technically breaching the livestock legislation while serving the very purpose that legislation pursued. The Supreme Court has applied it extremely sparingly since, and a defence built on it alone rarely succeeds.
Zvikonzero
Chikonzero chinobvuma kuti chiito ichi chaive chisiri pamutemo uye chinobvunza kana mupomerwi uyu anogona kupomerwa mhosva yacho. Mutemo wemhosva wekuDutch wakavakirwa papfungwa isina kunyorwa yekuti hapana chirango chisina mhosva, geen straf zonder schuld, uye zvikonzero zvinoita kuti pfungwa iyoyo ive yechokwadi.
Kusabatanidzwa, chikamu 39 Sr. Kubva pakatanga kushanda Mutemo weForensic Care musi wa1 Ndira 2020, mutemo unoti munhu haapihwe mhosva kana akaita chiito chisingagone kunzi chakakonzerwa naye nekuda kwechirwere chepfungwa, chirwere chepfungwa kana kuremara kwepfungwa. Nzira yekare pamusoro pekukura kusina kunaka kana kukanganiswa kwepfungwa kwakatsiviwa. Kubatanidzwa mumatare edzimhosva kutonga kwedare, kwakaziviswa asi kusingasarudzwe nemishumo yechiremba wepfungwa nenyanzvi yezvepfungwa, uye muzviitiko zvakakomba nekucherechedza kuPieter Baan Centrum.
Kumanikidzwa kwepfungwa (psychische overmacht), chinyorwa 40 Sr. Uyu ndiwo mufananidzo wechipiri wechinyorwa 40. Pano mupomerwi akaita zvinhu pasi pekumanikidzwa kwaibva kunze kwavaisagona kutarisirwa kuramba. Kumanikidzwa kunofanira kunge kuri kwekunze, saka kumanikidzwa kwemukati kunofanira kunge kuri pasi pechinyorwa 39 kwete pano, uye bvunzo nderokuti kuramba kwaigona here kudiwa nemupomerwi uyu mumamiriro ezvinhu aya. Kushungurudzwa kwenguva refu, kutyisidzira nhengo yemhuri, uye mamiriro ekushandiswa zvisina kunaka ndiwo mamiriro ezvinhu anowanzo taurwa nezvekudzivirira.
Kuzvidzivirira zvakanyanya (noodweerexces), chinyorwa 41 ndima 2 Sr. Kana mupomerwi akadarika miganhu yekudzivirira inodiwa, haasati achirangwa kana kuwandisa kwacho kuri mugumisiro wemanzwiro akasimba akakonzerwa nekurwiswa. Zvinofanira kuratidzwa zviviri: manzwiro anofanira kunge akakonzerwa nekurwiswa, uye kuwandisa kwacho kunofanira kunge kwakakonzerwa nemanzwiro. Mupomerwi akatya kurwiswa kusati kwatanga, kana kuti akaramba achitya mushure mekunge manzwiro apera, anowira kunze kwacho. Chikamu 41 ndima 2 chinofungidzira kuti paive nekurwiswa pakutanga, saka hazvinunuri dziviriro inokundikana nekuti hapana kurwiswa kwaivepo.
Kusavapo kwemhosva dzese (afwezigheid van alle schuld, AVAS). Chirevo ichi chisina kunyorwa chakabva pamutongo weMilk and Water wa1916, umo mutengesi akapomerwa mhosva yekutengesa mukaka wakaderedzwa mvura uyo mushandi akange adonhedza mvura asingazive, uye Dare Repamusorosoro rakabvuma kuti chirango chinofanirwa kupomerwa mhosva. AVAS inoonekwa mumhando nhatu dzinodzokororwa: kukanganisa kwechokwadi, kukanganisa kwemutemo, kazhinji apo nyanzvi ine hunyanzvi yakapa ruzivo rusina kururama rwaifanira kuvimbwa narwo nemupomerwi, uye mamiriro ezvinhu apo mupomerwi akaratidza kungwarira kwaigona kudiwa. Kazhinji kacho zvinokakavadzana pamusoro pemhosva dzemhando yemhosva dzakasimba munyaya dzemutemo nedzemumigwagwa, apo tsananguro yemhosva isina chinodiwa chekusaita chinangwa kana kuregeredza.
| Ground | Nheyo dzepamutemo | mhando | Chinodiwa chikuru |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kuzvidzivirira (noodweer) | Chinyorwa 41(1) Sr | Kururamiswa | Kurwiswa kusiri pamutemo, kudzivirirwa kwakakodzera uye kwakaringana |
| Zvinodiwa (zvisingakoshi) | Chinyorwa 40 Sr | Kururamiswa | Kusawirirana kwemabasa kunogadziriswa nekuda kwezvido zvepamusoro |
| Basa repamutemo | Chinyorwa 42 Sr | Kururamiswa | Kuita basa rekupa simba kune mutemo, mukati memiganhu yawo |
| Anokwanisa pamutemo odha | Chinyorwa 43(1) Sr | Kururamiswa | Murairo wakapihwa zviri pamutemo nechiremera chine hunyanzvi |
| Mutemo wepamutemo usina kukwana | Chinyorwa 43(2) Sr | Pamusoroi | Kutenda muunyanzvi, mukati mechikamu chekuzviisa pasi |
| Kusabatanidzwa | Chinyorwa 39 Sr | Pamusoroi | Dambudziko repfungwa, dambudziko repfungwa kana kuremara kwepfungwa |
| Kushungurudzwa kwepfungwa | Chinyorwa 40 Sr | Pamusoroi | Kumanikidzwa kwekunze kusingakwanise kudzivirirwa zvine musoro |
| Kunyanya kuzvidzivirira | Chinyorwa 41(2) Sr | Pamusoroi | Kuwanda kunokonzerwa zvakananga nemanzwiro akasimba anokonzerwa nekurwiswa |
| Kusavapo kwemhosva dzose (AVAS) | Hazvina kunyorwa, kubva kumatare edzimhosva | Pamusoroi | Hapana mhosva inogona kupiwa kune mupomerwi |
| Kusava nemutemo wezvinhu zviri pachena | Hazvina kunyorwa, kubva kumatare edzimhosva | Kururamiswa | Kutyorwa kwemutemo kwakazadzisa chinangwa chemutemo wakatyorwa |
Chii chinoitika mushure mekusunungurwa kubva kudare redzimhosva
Kutongwa kweOVAR hakusi kupiwa mhosva uye hakuna mutongo. Kwakanyorwa mumagwaro edare, uye mhedzisiro yakwo pagwaro rekuzvibata (verklaring omtrent het gedrag) kunoongororwa zvakasiyana nedare rekuongorora, iro rinotarisa chokwadi pamwe nemhedzisiro yacho. Kana mupomerwi akachengetwa mujeri asati asvika kutongwa uye nyaya yacho ikaguma neOVAR kana kusunungurwa, muripo unogona kukumbirwa pasi pechirongwa chemutemo, mukati menguva pfupi mushure mekunge nyaya yacho yava yekupedzisira.
Chinhu chakakosha chinosanganisira chikamu 39. Kusunungurwa nekuti chiito ichi hachigone kunzi chakakonzerwa nemupomerwi hazvirevi kuti nyaya yacho yapera. Dare rinogona kupa chiyero pane chirango: murairo wekurapwa uri pasi pemutemo wenyika (terbeschikkingstelling, TBS) pasi pechikamu 37a Sr apo mhosva yacho yakakura zvakakwana uye kune njodzi kune vamwe, kana, kubvira 1 Ndira 2020, mvumo yekutarisirwa kwemunhu yakapihwa nedare remhosva pasi peMutemo weForensic Care, ichishandisa hurongwa hweMutemo weCompulsory Mental Health Care. Kuderedzwa kwemhosva, kunze kwekunge kwakazara, hakusi chikonzero chekubviswa zvachose; chinhu chinobatsira mukupa mutongo uye chinogona kusanganiswa neTBS.
Kana dziviriro ikabudirira zvishoma chete, mhedzisiro yacho inowanzoonekwa mumutsara kwete mukutongwa. Kukumbira kumanikidzwa kana kudenhwa kunogamuchirwa zvishoma kunoderedza mutongo, uye mukuita izvozvo mhedzisiro yakajairika kupfuura kusunungurwa zvachose.
Mavakirwo ekudzivirira uye kuti anokanganisika papi
Nyaya yekuzvidzivirira kana yekumanikidzwa inohwinwa kare kare isati yambokurukurwa padare. Zvinhu zvacho ndezvechokwadi, uye chokwadi chinofanira kusimbiswa chichiripo.
Izvi zvinoreva, kutanga, kurongeka kwezviitiko kwakarurama. Ndiani akaita chii, akatevedzana sei, mumasekonzi mangani. Nyaya dzekuzvidzivirira dzinotanga panguva yakatanga kurwiswa uye payakapera, uye kugadziriswa kwakanyorwa mwedzi mumwe chete kwakaderera pane kwakaitwa vhiki imwe chete. Chechipiri, humbowo hwekurwiswa: kukuvara kwakatorwa mifananidzo nekuongororwa nachiremba, kukuvara kwembatya, mifananidzo yekamera kubva mumugwagwa kana panzvimbo isati yanyorwazve, traffic yefoni, uye mazita ezvapupu zvisati zvapararira. Chechitatu, munyaya ine chekuita nekumanikidzwa kana kumanikidzwa, nhoroondo yezvekurapa neyepfungwa, iyo vekudzivirira vane chido chekuisa pamberi penyanzvi pane kuvasiya vachiwana.
Zvikanganiso zvinogara zvichiitika zvinogona kufanotaurwa zvakafanana. Chekutanga ndechekuvhiringidza mapoka maviri aya, uye kukumbira chikonzero kana paine chikonzero kana chakapesana; chinoshandura zvinofanira kuratidzwa uye zvazvinoita kune chero ani zvake anobatanidzwa. Chechipiri ndechekuratidza kuenzana uye kubatana panzvimbo pekuzviratidza: dare harizofungi kuti pakanga pasina nzira yekutiza, uye richabvunza kuti nei chombo chakashandiswa. Chechitatu ndechekusimudzira dziviriro kekutanga pakutongwa kwenyaya, apo faira raigona kunge rakawedzerwa mwedzi yapfuura uye muchuchisi angadai akakumbirwa kuti aongorore imwe pfungwa chaiyo.
Chechina ndicho chinoitika mubvunzurudzo yekutanga yemapurisa. Mupomerwi anoramba chiito ichi zvachose uye ozovimba nekuzvidzivirira anofanira kutsanangura shanduko yacho, uye tsananguro iyoyo inowanzo dhura. Munhu wese akashandisa simba pakupokana anofanira kukumbira gweta asati abvunzurudzwa uye anofanira kuudzwa zvekutaura uye kuti riini. Munyaya yekurwisa, awa yekutanga iyoyo inowanzo sarudza zvimwe zvese zviri kuitika; chinyorwa chedu pamusoro pemhosva dzekurwisa muNetherlands chinotsanangura kuti nyaya dzakadaro dzinoitwa sei.
Chekupedzisira, rambai muchifunga nezvemutoro weuchapupu. Kana dziviriro yataurwa ine chokwadi chakakwana, dare rinofanira kupindura mukutonga kwaro, uye kana muchuchisi asingakwanise kubvisa shanduro yakapihwa, dziviriro inobudirira. Ndosaka zviri mukati mezviri kupihwa zvichikosha kupfuura zita rayo, uye nei dziviriro inongotaurwa ichingosiyiwa parutivi zviri nyore.
Mibvunzo inowanzo bvunzwa nezvezvikonzero zvekusabvumidzwa
Q1: Ndeupi musiyano uripo pakati peOVAR nekuregererwa nechikonzero chekusapihwa chirango?
NeOVAR dare rinoona kuti chokwadi chakasimbiswa asi rinosunungura mupomerwi kubva pakupomerwa mhosva, saka hapana mutongo unopihwa kana mutongo. Kana munhu asunungurwa, chokwadi chaari kupomerwa hachiratidzike zvachose. OVAR ndiyo mhedzisiro inowanzoitwa kana munhu abvuma zvakanaka chikonzero chekusapomerwa mhosva.
Mubvunzo wechipiri: Ndingazvidaidza kuAVAS ndisina gweta here?
Unogona kuzvitaura iwe pachako, asi hazvina musoro. AVAS imhosva isina kunyorwa uye inofanira kuvakirwa pachokwadi: chikanganiso chechokwadi, chikanganiso chemutemo, kana humbowo hwekuti wakangwarira zvese zvaungatarisira. Kupa izvozvo nenzira iyo dare rinogona kuita nayo ibasa regweta rematsotsi.
Q3: Ndeipi mari inoenderana nerubatsiro rwemutemo kune zvikonzero zvekusabviswa kubva mukurangwa?
Mari inoenderana negweta uye kuoma kwenyaya yacho. Munyaya dzemhosva unogona kukodzera rubatsiro rwemutemo runotsigirwa neLegal Aid Board, uye gweta rinopihwa mahara kana wakachengetwa mujeri nemapurisa.
Q4: Maitiro anosanganisira zvikonzero zvekubviswa pakurangwa anotora nguva yakareba sei?
Izvi zvinoenderana nekuoma uye humbowo. Mhosva dzakareruka dzekuzvidzivirira dzinogona kupera mukati memwedzi, nepo nyaya dzakaomarara dzekupenga dzinosanganisira kuongororwa kwepfungwa dzinogona kutora makore.
Ndezvipi zvikonzero zviviri zvikuru zvekusarangwa?
Mapoka maviri makuru ndiwo zvikonzero, zvinobvisa kusatenderwa kwemaitiro nekuda kwemamiriro ezvinhu akadai sekuzvidzivirira kana simba guru, uye zvikonzero zvekusapomerwa mhosva, apo maitiro acho anoramba ari asiri pamutemo asi mupari wemhosva haafanirwe kupomerwa mhosva, semuenzaniso nekuda kwekusava nemhosva yese (AVAS) kana kusakwanisa kwepfungwa.
Chikonzero chekusarangwa chinoreva here kuti chiito chacho chakanga chisiri mhosva chaiyo?
Kwete chaizvo. Zvinoreva kuti chirango hachipihwe kune chiito chinowanzova mhosva, nekuda kwekushaikwa kwemhosva kana kuvapo kwechikonzero, izvo zvinogona kutungamira mukurambidzwa kwenyaya kana kusunungurwa kunyangwe chiito chacho chakaitwa nenzira yehunyanzvi.
Mutemo weDutch unobvuma zvikonzero zvingani zvekuzvipembedza?
Zvinyorwa zvina: kuzvidzivirira (chinyorwa 41 ndima 1 Sr), zvinodiwa (chinyorwa 40 Sr), kuita basa repamutemo (chinyorwa 42 Sr) uye kuita basa repamutemo rine hunyanzvi (chinyorwa 43 ndima 1 Sr). Mutemo wenyaya unowedzera chikonzero chimwe chete chisina kunyorwa, kusavapo kwemutemo wepamutemo.
Ndezvipi zvirevo zvemutemo zvinotsigira zvikonzero izvi zvekusarangwa?
Zvinopa simba kumutemo wekuti mhosva yemhosva inoda chiito chisiri pamutemo uye mhosva. Musimboti usina kunyorwa wekuti hapana chirango chisina mhosva, unotsigira zvikonzero, nepo zvikonzero zvichiratidza kuti mufambiro unoenderana netsanangudzo yemhosva unogona kuramba uri pamutemo.
Mazano pamusoro penyaya yemhosva
Kana chikonzero chekusapomerwa mhosva chiripo hachiwanzoonekwi kubva mukupomerwa chete. Zvinoenderana nekutevedzana kwezviitiko, pane zvinogona kusimbiswa nezvazvo, uye kuti mamiriro acho ezvinhu ari muzvikamu zvipi. Mibvunzo iyoyo yakakodzera kubvunzwa gweta nekukurumidza, uye zvechokwadi usati wabvunzurudzwa nemapurisa.
Law & More anobatsira vanhu vanopomerwa mhosva nevanopomerwa mhosva padanho rega rega rekutongwa kwemhosva muDutch, kubva pakubvunzurudzwa kwekutanga kusvika pakukwidza nyaya, kusanganisira nyaya dzekuzvidzivirira, kumanikidzwa kana kuti chikonzero chiripo. Isu tinomiririra vatengi vekuDutch nevekunze kwenyika uye tinoshanda muChirungu. Ndokumbirawo mubate mumwe wevanhu vedu magweta emhosva kuti tikurukure nezvemaonero enyu, kana kuti tiverenge zvakawanda muchikamu chedu nhungamiro dzemutemo wemhosvaPeji redu pamusoro pe mutengo wegweta remhosva muNetherlands inotsanangura mari dzekubhadhara nerubatsiro rwemutemo runotsigirwa nemari.
